On Sunday, gunmen linked to Islamic State attacked several locations in Russia’s Dagestan province, leaving at least 20 killed and 46 wounded. The attackers burnt down an empty synagogue and killed a Russian Orthodox priest while assaulting his church. On the same day, an ATACMS strike by Ukrainian forces was intercepted by Russian air defense, with one missile exploding over a beach and causing the death of at least four civilians with over 100 wounded. These attacks reinforce a Russian feeling of being under siege, weaken President Vladimir Putin’s image as a strong leader, and necessitate a future reaction on his part.

Though Russia conquered the Muslim-dominated Caucasus region in the 19th century, local unrest and violence continued through Tsarist and Soviet times. The fall of the Soviet Union only saw the region experience more brutal wars and instances of mass violence. During the high-water mark of the ISIS caliphate, thousands of Russian citizens from Dagestan joined the caliphate and subsequently returned home after its collapse.