Fearing a sustained threat from Russia and reduced military protection from the United States, several European nations led by Poland, Estonia, the United Kingdom, and Germany are boosting defense spending. The European Union is also making $163 billion in defense loans available to its 27 member states. For two reasons, the loans will not cover purchases from U.S. defense manufacturers.

First, the EU wants to boost its defense manufacturing base. Second, it fears that President Donald Trump might, in response to some future grievance, suspend defense exports crucial to maintaining American equipment in European armories. Portugal has suspended plans to buy American F-35 fighter jets partly for this reason, although its main reason was to avoid spending more on defense.